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16 February 2012

Silicon Wafer Processing

Introduction


The processing of Silicon wafers to produce integrated circuits involves a good deal of chemistry and
physics. In order to alter the surface conditions and properties, it is necessary to use both inert and toxic
chemicals, specific and unusual conditions, and to manipulate those conditions with both plasma-state
elements and with RF (Radio Frequency) energies. Starting with thin, round wafers of silicon crystal, in
diameters of 150, 200, and 300mm, the processes described here build up a succession of layers of
materials and geometries to produce thousands of electronic devices at tiny sizes, which together
function as integrated circuits (ICs). The devices which now occupy the surface of a one-inch square IC
would have occupied the better part of a medium-sized room 20 years ago, when all these devices
(transistors, resistors, capacitors, and so on) were only available as discreet units.
The conditions under which these processes can work to successfully transform the silicon into ICs
require an absolute absence of contaminants. Thus, the process chambers normally operate under
vacuum, with elemental, molecular, and other particulate contaminants rigorously controlled. In order to
understand these processes, then, we will begin the study of semiconductor processing with an overview
of vacuum systems and theory, of gas systems and theory, as applied specifically to these tools, and of
clean room processes and procedures
The semiconductor industry reflects and serves an extraordinary revolution in both materials science and
in data processing and storage. As recently as 1980, most individuals had no idea that computers would
ever impact their personal lives. Today, many families own one or two computers, and use many other
computers and dedicated processor systems in their appliances and automobiles. The intrusion of
electronics and computer technology into our lives and the devices we use daily is growing at an
exponential rate, and Moore’s Law still applied in the computer world. This is one of the few markets in
which, as time passes, the power and capacity of the products grows steadily, while the cost of that
power and capacity drops.
Today, only twenty years later, we are continually pushing the envelope of capabilities of the data
processing and storage systems that are now in the mainstream. Ingenuity and creativity, along with
great strides in quality control, process control, and worker productivity, are leading daily to new ideas
about how to further reduce device size and data density. On the horizon are visions of biochemicallybased
devices which will be far smaller, work faster, and generate less heat than current devices. It is
worth spending some time imagining where this evolving technology will take us, and the society we
live in.

20 January 2012

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Katrina Kaif, chiknni chameli and Agneepath...lets see how it rocks...!!


Katrina Kaif in Chikni Chameli

With close to three million views on Youtube in just five days, ‘Chikni Chameli’, the Bollywood tadka rendered by Bollywood beauty Katrina Kaif for Dharma Productions Agneepath, is already creating waves across the industry. The actress has spread her sizzling magic again – ‘Chikni Chameli’ has become the Number One song on radio in the major markets in India, Number 1 on Nokia Ovi Store, No 1 on online streaming sites like Saavn.com and Gaana.com, No 2 in the charts of India’s biggest retail music store chain – Planet M. As Chikni Chameli in Agneepath‘s item song, Katrina has proved that she is capable of championingjhatkas and thumkas to pacy beats. Composers Ajay-Atul are delighted to have recreated ‘Chikni Chameli’ which has been adapted from the Marathi hit ‘Kombdi Padali’. ‘Chikni Chameli’ is all set to be this party season’s dance anthem worldwide.

Agneepath is the much awaited, contemporary blockbuster remake starring Hrithik Roshan, Priyanka Chopra, Sanjay Dutt, Rishi Kapoor and of course Katrina Kaif - the ’Chikni Chameli’ item girl. She worked for a ten-day period to provide the needed glamour and mood of the song. ”The song is a rustic number, so she had to dance bare-feet on the uneven ground. Halfway through the number, she injured the soles of her feet as the continuous pressure peeled off her skin. Despite everyone telling her to attend to her injuries she continued with the dance without a whimper,” says Ganesh Acharya, the dance choreographer for the song.

‘Chikni Chameli’ is picturised on Katrina, who acts drunk and is joined by scores of men including the lead actor ‘Duggu’ and ‘Sanju Baba’. A comparison is being drawn between Chameli Katrina Kaif’s koli avatar, Helen’s kashti sari from ‘Mungda…’ (Inkaar) and Madhuri Dixit’s fisherwoman attire from ‘Humko Aaj Kal Hai….’ (Sailaab).

In relation to this, Katrina Kaif says, “I don’t want to be compared with dancing icons like Madhuri and Helen. Their songs are still being played on reality shows and for stage performances. They’ve done a fabulous job. I think they looked stunning in those songs.” The actress, who is open to performing item songs, adds, “Mungda and the Madhuri song are classics. My song is relatively new. As for the look comparison, I don’t think any of them wore a ghagra-choli in the songs you mention. But I’d take it as a compliment if I came anywhere close to what Helen and Madhuri did.”

‘Chikni Chameli’ is available now on iTunes worldwide. Agneepath releases in cinemas worldwide on 26th January 2012.

Apple's iBook 2: Textbooks that come alive...!!

Apple’s announcement on Thursday that it would be introducing a new iPad textbook experience and iBooks authoring tool presents huge opportunities for technology in classrooms.

The company is selling textbooks from McGraw-Hill, Pearson and Houghton Mifflin at a price comparable to print versions, and it’s presented an unprecedented opportunity for teachers to compile their own materials.

But Apple has a long way to go — and logistical hurdles to clear in tens of thousands of schools — before it dominates K-12 classrooms the way it has done the music industry.

Instructional Technology Resource Teacher Jenny Grabiec recently purchased iPads for two of the ESL classrooms in her 160-school district using federal funds allocated for students with limited English proficiency.

Getting approval for the actual purchase was fairly easy. She sent a written request to the district CIO, and he approved it. But it took five months to get the iPads up and running after they arrived.

In order to download new apps, she needed to get the Apple volume purchase program approved as a vendor by the budget group. But who would explain to the budget committee the process of paying with an Apple ID? Who would be responsible for downloading the volume-purchased apps? Could the students use them outside of their hour-long ESL class? The list of logistical issues went on.

“Because nobody in our district had done it before, it took a long time,” Grabiec says.


Becoming The Next Big Thing


By Apple’s count, 1.5 million iPads are being used by schools. But there are 55.5 million students enrolled in more than 130,000 U.S. schools. No matter how you slice it, the iPad is not a mainstream phenomenon in K-12.

Nor is there any guarantee it will become so. One-to-one initiatives for laptops have been pushing forward for years without mainstream adoption. Maine, for instance, gave 33,000 middle school students and 3,000 teachers personal laptops as early as 2002.

But in 2009, a survey by the National Center for Education Statistics found that while 99% of public school teachers have some access to computers, just 29% of public school teachers use them during instructional time “often.” Just 3% of schools in a 2010 survey by the FCC said they have a one-to-one computer ratio.

iPads do have a couple of advantages over one-to-one laptop initiatives. Grabiec points out that the iPads’ batteries last longer than the laptops she oversees in other classrooms. They also have been less expensive to maintain than the computers — not a single one has been damaged — and don’t work as stand-ins for desktop computers, but as cameras, GPS devices and video cameras.

“With a laptop you were stuck with consuming content,” says Timothy Smith, who works as an Instructional Technology Specialist in the same district as Grabiec. “But with the iPad you’re taking videos and looking at ideas in a new way.”


Textbook Availability


Even though Apple’s first iPad textbooks will sell for $15 or less, they won’t be any less expensive for schools than paper books. Vineet Madan, head McGraw-Hill Higher Education eLabs, tells Mashable that iBooks will be sold to schools rather than directly to students, but that schools will grant students access to those books through their personal IDs.

In other words, even if a school reuses iPads, it won’t be able to reuse books. The books will be kept on individual students’ iTunes accounts.

Schools reuse the same paper book for about five years, and those books usually cost about $75. Because a new book will be purchased every year, the iBook version still costs $75 for five years.

Relying on iBooks as textbooks isn’t a feasible option for most public schools at the moment because Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, McGraw-Hill and Pearson have each dedicated just a small number of titles each. Madan puts the typical cycle for textbook approval in most states at about five years.

Unless the school happens to be using one of the selected titles, it can’t use iBooks yet. Most other options for digital textbooks that can be read on an iPad –including Coursesmart, Kno, Chegg and Inkling — focus on books for higher education.

Unless major publishers decide to add more of their titles to iBooks, it won’t be a feasible default reader in most schools. Madan says that McGraw has already committed to adding five additional titles before September, but it will commit to additional titles based on uptake.

In a FTC 2010 survey of the schools in its program for discounted telecommunications, almost 80% said their Internet connections don’t fully meet their current needs.

“It’s not atypical to see one classroom of students on connected devices bring down a network,” Madan says.

Before schools introduce connected devices, many of them will need to introduce better Internet connections. And that’s just one logistical issue. Schools and districts will likely have a longer list specific to their circumstances. Consider the situation that Smith, who recently helped put an iPad in the hands of every administrator in his district, faces when he thinks about introducing iPads district-wide:

Some types of funding, like the one used to buy iPads for the ESL classrooms, can’t be used for anything already being paid for by the school district. If the district bought iPads for some students, in other words, it would be cutting off other sources of funding. It’s a puzzle.


Bringing iPads to the Mainstream


Many schools already use iPads in their courses. Policies that allow students to bring their own devices to school might make make this more common.

According to a 2011 Pearson Foundation survey, 70% percent of college students and college-bound high school seniors are interested in owning a tablet device, and 20% expect to purchase a tablet within the next six months.

The inevitable price decline on the iPad could also make iPads a more mainstream conduit for educational material.

“This is a change in how school districts think,” Smith says, “and in a larger school district, that can take some time."

source: Mashable

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